Paris Agreement (2015)
The Paris Agreement1 to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) (henceforth referred to as ‘the convention’) was adopted at the Conference of Parties (henceforth referred to as COP) 21 in 2015. It entered into force in 2016 and currently has 195 parties that have ratified it.
While the Kyoto Protocol set legally binding emissions reduction targets specifically for developed countries (Annex I countries) requiring these nations to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions by specific amounts, the Paris Agreement emphasizes voluntary, nationally determined contributions (henceforth referred to as NDCs)2 for all participating countries. Countries set their own targets and are encouraged to raise their ambitions over time.
Moreover, the Kyoto Protocol primarily focused on reducing greenhouse gas emissions, with limited emphasis on adaptation measures or climate finance while the Paris Agreement places a strong emphasis on adaptation to climate impacts, resilience building, and mobilizing climate finance, aiming to provide developing countries with resources necessary to help them address climate change and transition to low-carbon economies.
Article 1: Definitions
The definitions introduced in the UNFCCC and Kyoto Protocol apply to this agreement.
Article 2: Main objective
The main objective of the Paris Agreement is to enhance the implementation of the convention with the aim of strengthening the global response to the threat of climate change.
It seeks to do this by i) holding the increase in the global average temperature to well below 2°C above pre-industrial levels3 with efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels ii) increasing the ability to adapt to the adverse impacts of climate change and foster climate resilience and low greenhouse gas emissions development, in a manner that does not threaten food production and iii) making finance flows consistent with a pathway towards low greenhouse gas emissions and climate-resilient development.
This agreement seeks to meet its objective while upholding equity and the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities4.
Article 3: Communication of NDCs
In order to achieve the purpose of this agreement, all parties are required to undertake and communicate their efforts as defined in Articles 4, 7, 9, 10, 11 and 13, as part of their NDCs. These efforts will represent a progression over time, recognizing the need to support developing country parties for the effective implementation of this agreement.
Article 4: Mitigation efforts
In order to achieve the long-term temperature goal set out in this agreement, parties are encouraged to reach global peaking5 of greenhouse gas emissions as soon as possible, acknowledging that peaking will take longer for developing countries. Parties are also urged to undertake rapid reductions to achieve a balance between emissions by sources and removal by sinks of greenhouse gases6 in the second half of this century.
Every five years, parties are required to prepare and communicate the NDCs that they aim to achieve, while taking into account their their common but differentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities, in the light of different national circumstances. They should pursue domestic mitigation measures7, with the aim of achieving the objectives of their contributions. When recognizing and implementing mitigation actions with respect to emissions and removals, parties are required to take into account existing methods and guidance under the convention. Each party’s successive NDCs should represent a progression beyond its current NDCs, and should reflect its highest possible ambition.
While communicating their NDCs, parties should provide the information necessary for clarity, transparency and understanding, and record them in a public registry maintained by the secretariat. They are allowed to adjust their NDCs with a view to enhancing their level of ambition, in accordance with guidance adopted by the COP. Parties should account for their NDCs while promoting environmental integrity, transparency, accuracy, completeness, comparability and consistency and ensure the avoidance of double counting.
Developed country parties should continue taking the lead, by undertaking economy-wide absolute emission reduction targets. Developing country parties should continue enhancing their mitigation efforts, and are encouraged to move over time towards economy-wide emission reduction or limitation targets in the light of different national circumstances. Enhanced support should be offered to developing countries, recognizing that this will allow for higher ambitions in their actions. The least developed countries and small island developing states may prepare and communicate strategies, plans and actions for low greenhouse gas emissions development reflecting their special circumstances.
Parties that agree to act jointly to reduce their overall greenhouse gas emissions should notify the secretariat of the terms of the agreement, including the emission level allocated to each party. Each party to such an agreement shall be responsible for its emission level as set out in the agreement. If parties acting jointly do so together with a regional economic integration organization, which is itself a party to this agreement, each member state of that organization together with the organization itself shall be responsible for its emission level as set out in the agreement.
Article 5: Conservation of sinks and reservoirs
Parties should take action to conserve and enhance sinks and reservoirs of greenhouse gases, including forests. They are encouraged to take action to implement and support the existing framework as set out in related guidance and decisions already agreed under the convention.
Article 6: Internationally Transferred Mitigation Outcomes (IMTOs
This agreement recognizes that some parties may choose to pursue voluntary cooperation in the implementation of their NDCs. If such parties engage in cooperative approaches involving the use of internationally transferred mitigation outcomes (IMTOs)8 towards NDCs, they should do so in a way to promote sustainable development and ensure environmental integrity and transparency, including in governance, and shall apply robust accounting to avoid double counting9. The use of IMTOs should be voluntary and authorized by participating parties.
A mechanism to contribute to the mitigation of greenhouse gas emissions and support sustainable development was established under the authority and guidance of the COP. This mechanism aims to i) promote the mitigation of greenhouse gas emissions while fostering sustainable development ii) incentivize and facilitate participation in the mitigation of greenhouse gas emissions by public and private entities authorized by a party ii) contribute to the reduction of emission levels in the host party, which will benefit from mitigation activities resulting in emission reductions that can only be used by another party to fulfill its NDCs and iv) deliver an overall mitigation in global emissions. Emission reductions resulting from this mechanism should not be used to demonstrate achievement of the host party’s NDCs if used by another party to demonstrate achievement of its NDCs. The COP should ensure that a share of the proceeds from activities under this mechanism is used to cover administrative expenses as well as assist country parties that are particularly vulnerable to the adverse effects of climate change to meet the cost of adaptation.
Parties are expected to recognize the importance of non-market approaches10 that assist in the implementation of their NDCs, in a coordinated and effective manner including through mitigation, adaptation, finance, technology transfer and capacity building. These approaches aim to i) promote mitigation and adaptation ambitions ii) enhance public and private sector participation in the implementation of NDCs, and iii) enable opportunities for coordination across instruments and relevant institutional arrangements. A framework for non-market approaches to sustainable development was defined to promote these non-market approaches.
Article 7: Adaptation efforts
Parties are required to recognize that the global goal of adaptation is to enhance adaptive capacity, strengthen resilience and reduce vulnerability to climate change. They should also recognize that adaptation is a global challenge faced by all and that it is a key component of and makes a contribution to the long-term global response to climate change to protect people, livelihoods and ecosystems, taking into account the urgent and immediate needs of those developing country parties that are particularly vulnerable to the adverse effects of climate change. They should recognize that the current need for adaptation is significant and that greater adaptation needs can involve greater adaptation costs while greater levels of mitigation can reduce the need for additional adaptation efforts.
Parties should acknowledge that adaptation efforts should follow a country-driven, gender-responsive, participatory and fully transparent approach, taking into consideration vulnerable groups, communities and ecosystems. The efforts should also be based on and be guided by the best available science and traditional knowledge, knowledge of the indigenous people and local knowledge systems in order to integrate them into relevant socio-economic and environmental policies and actions.
Parties should recognize the importance of international cooperation on adaptation efforts and the importance of taking into account the needs of developing country parties, especially those that are particularly vulnerable to the adverse effects of climate change. They should strengthen their cooperation on enhancing action on adaptation, taking into account the Cancun Adaptation Framework11 with regards to i) sharing information, good practices, experiences and lessons learned ii) strengthening institutional arrangements to support the synthesis of relevant information and knowledge, and the provision of technical support and guidance to parties iii) strengthening scientific knowledge on climate, including research, systematic observation of the climate system and early warning systems, in a manner that informs climates services and supports decision-making iv) assisting developing country parties in identifying effective adaptation practices, adaptation needs, priorities, support provided and received for adaptation actions and efforts, and challenges and gaps, in a manner consistent with encouraging good practices and v) improving the effectiveness and durability of adaptation actions. The United Nations specialized organizations and agencies are encouraged to support the efforts of parties to implement these actions.
Each party should engage in the adaptation planning process and the implementation of actions, including the development or enhancement of relevant plans, policies and/or contributions which may include i) the implementation of adaptation actions, undertakings and/or efforts ii) the process to formulate and implement national adaptation plans iii) the assessment of climate change impacts and vulnerability, with a view to formulating nationally determined prioritized actions, taking into account vulnerable people and systems iv) monitoring and evaluating and learning from adaptation plans, policies, programs and actions and v) building the resilience of socioeconomic and ecological systems, including through economic diversification and sustainable management of natural resources.
Each party should submit and update periodically an adaptation communication which may include its priorities, implementation and support needs, plans and actions and without creating any additional burden for developing countries. This communication should be submitted as a component or in conjunction with other communications or documents that parties are required to submit to the secretariat. These adaptation communications should be recorded in a public registry maintained by the secretariat.
Article 8: Loss and damage
Parties should recognize the importance of averting, minimizing and addressing loss and damage associated with the adverse effects of climate change, including extreme weather events and slow onset events, and the role of sustainable development in reducing the risk of loss and damage.
The Warsaw International Mechanism for Loss and Damage12, created in 2013, acknowledges that loss and damage associated with the adverse effects of climate change includes, and in some cases involves more than that which can be reduced by adaptation. This mechanism shall be subject to the authority and guidance of the COP and may be enhanced and strengthened by the COP.
Parties should enhance understanding, action and support, including through the Warsaw International Mechanism, on a cooperative and facilitative basis with respect to loss and damage associated with the adverse effects of climate change.
Areas of cooperation and facilitation to enhance understanding, action and support may include i) early warning sytems ii) emergency preparedness iii) slow onset events iv) events that may involve irreversible and permanent loss and damage v) comprehensive risk assessment and management vi) risk insurance facilities, climate risk pooling and other insurance solutions vii) non-economic losses and viii) resilience of communities, livelihoods and ecosystems.
Article 9: Climate finance
Developed countries are required to provide financial resources to assist developing country parties in meeting their mitigation and adaptation obligations, while other parties are encouraged to do so, albeit voluntarily. Developed countries should continue taking the lead in mobilizing funds from a wide variety of sources, noting the significant role of public funds through a variety of actions such as supporting country driven strategies, and taking into account the needs and priorities of developing country parties. The provision of financial resources should aim to achieve a balance between adaptation and mitigation strategies.
Developed country parties should biennially communicate indicative quantitative and qualitative information on their financial obligations, including projected levels of public financial resources to be provided to developing country parties. They should also provide transparent and consistent information on support for developing country parties provided and mobilized through public interventions biennially with guidance from the COP. The operating entities of this mechanism should aim to ensure efficient access to financial resources through simplified approval procedures and enhanced readiness support for developing country parties, in particular the least developed countries and small island developing states, in the context of their national climate strategies and plans.
Article 10: Technological framework
This agreement acknowledges that parties share a long-term vision on the importance of fully realizing technology development and transfer in order to improve resilience to climate change and to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Noting the importance of technology for the implementation of mitigation and adaptation actions under this agreement and recognizing existing technology deployment and dissemination efforts, parties are encouraged to strengthen cooperative action on technology development and transfer.
A technology framework was established to provide guidance to the technology mechanism established under the convention, in promoting and facilitating enhanced action on technology development and transfer in order to support the implementation of this agreement.
This agreement acknowledges that accelerating, encouraging and enabling innovation is critical for an effective, long-term global response to climate change and promoting economic growth and sustainable development. It notes that these efforts will be supported by the technology mechanism and through financial means, by the financial mechanism of the convention, for collaborative approaches to research and development, and facilitating access to technology, in particular for early stages of the technology cycle, to developing country parties. Additionally, this agreement highlights that support, including financial support, should be provided to developing country parties to strengthen cooperative action on technology development and transfer at different stages of the technology cycle with a view to achieve a balance between support for mitigation and adaptation.
Article 11: Capacity building
Capacity-building should enhance the ability of developing countries, especially the least developed countries and those vulnerable to the adverse effects of climate change, to take effective climate change action, including implementing mitigation and adaptation actions, and should facilitate technology development, dissemination and deployment, access to climate finance, relevant aspects of education, training and public awareness, and the transparent, timely and accurate communication of information.
Capacity-building should be country-driven, based on and responsive to national needs and foster country ownership of parties, in particular developing countries. It should also be guided by lessons learned, including those from capacity-building activities under the convention, and should be an effective, iterative process that is participatory, cross-cutting and gender- responsive. All parties should cooperate to enhance the capacity of developing country parties to implement this agreement with developing country parties enhancing support for capacity building actions in developing country parties.
All parties enhancing the capacity of developing country parties to implement this agreement should regularly communicate on these actions or measures on capacity-building. Developing country parties should regularly communicate progress made on implementing capacity-building plans, policies, actions or measures to implement this agreement.
Article 12: Raising awareness on climate change
Parties are required to cooperate in taking appropriate measures to enhance climate change education, training, public awareness, public participation and public access to information, recognizing the importance of these steps with respect to enhancing actions under this agreement.
Article 13: Transparency framework for action and support
An enhanced transparency framework for action and support was established, with the aim of building mutual trust and confidence and promoting effective implementation.
The purpose of the framework for transparency of action is to provide a clear understanding of climate change action including clarity and tracking of progress towards achieving parties’ individual NDCs and their adaptation actions including good practices, priorities, needs and gaps. On the other hand, the purpose of the framework for transparency for support is to provide clarity on support provided provided and received by relevant indicidual parties in the context of climate change actions and to provide, where possible, a full overview of aggregate financial support provided.
The transparency framework for action and support provides flexibility in the provisions of this article to the developing countries that need it. It builds on and enhances the transparency arrangements under the convention and is implemented in a facilitative, non-intrusive, non-punitive manner, respectful of national sovereignity and avoids placing undue pressure on parties.
Each party is required to regularly provide information on i) a national inventory report of emissions and removals by sinks of greenhouse gases, prepared using good practice methodologies accepted by the IPCC13 and agreed upon by the COP and ii) information necessary to track progress made in implementing abd achieving its NDCs. Each party is also required to provide information related to climate change impacts and adaptation. Developed country parties, and other parties that provide support, should provide information on financial technology transfer and capacity-building support provided to developing countries. Developing countries on the other hand should provide information on financial, technology transfer and capacity-building support needed and received.
Information submitted by each party should undergo a technical expert review. For developing country parties, this review includes identifying capacity-building needs, paying close attention to the respective national capabilities and circumstances for these parties. This technical expert review should consider support provided to the party and its implementation and achievement of its NDCs. The review should also identify areas of improvement for the party, and include a review of the consistency of the information with modalities, procedures and guidelines provided by the COP.
Generally, support should be provided to developing countries for the implementation of this article, more so for the building of transparency-related capacity in a continuous basis.
Article 14: Global stocktake
The COP is required to periodically review the implementation of this agreement to assess the collective progress towards achieving its purpose and long term goal.
On matters adaptation, the global stocktake should i) recognize adaptation efforts of developing country parties ii) enhance the implementation of adaptation actions iii) review the adequacy and effectiveness of adaptation and support provided for adaptation, and iv) review the overall progress made in achieving the global adaptation goal. Additionally, the global stocktake should take into account the relevant information provided by developing country parties and / or agreement bodies on efforts related to climate finance as well as available information on efforts related to support on technology development and transfer for developing country parties.
The COP was intended to conduct global stocktake meetings every five years, with the first one scheduled for 2023. However, it took place in June 2024.
For more details on the information in this article as well as other articles not included, see the Paris Agreement.
Footnotes
NDCs are climate action plans that each country submits under the Paris Agreement, outlining their commitments to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and adapt to climate impacts. NDCs are set individually by each country and are updated every five years. An example is Ireland’s Climate Action Plan.↩︎
The IPCC uses the period 1850-1900 as the pre-industrial period because it’s the earliest period for which high-quality observations of surface temperatures over the land and ocean are available. Given that global temperature is currently rising by 0.2°C (±0.1°C) per decade, human-induced warming reached 1°C above pre-industrial levels around 2017 and, if this pace of warming continues, IPCC predicts it would reach 1.5°C around 2040.↩︎
The principle of common but differentiated responsibility acknowledges that all countries share a collective obligation to protect the environment and address climate change because these issues affect the entire planet. But developed countries are typically seen as having a greater responsibility for past emissions due to their industrialization and historical carbon output. Developing countries on the other hand often face greater challenges in reducing emissions due to economic constraints, lack of technology, and developmental priorities. This principle recognizes that countries at different levels of development should not be held to the same standards or expectations. It aims to create a more just approach to international environmental agreements by considering economic and social contexts.↩︎
Peaking of global emissions refers to the point at which global greenhouse gas emissions reach their highest level before starting to decline.↩︎
This means that parties are encouraged to quickly reduce their greenhouse gas emissions to reach a point where the amount of emissions released into the atmosphere (from sources like fossil fuel burning) is equal to the amount removed from the atmosphere (by sinks like forests, soils, and oceans). This balance is referred to as net-zero emissions↩︎
Remember that each country is responsible for developing its own mitigation measures.↩︎
Internationally transferred mitigation outcomes refer to the emissions reductions or removals achieved in one country and transferred to another country to help the receiving country meet its NDCs.↩︎
Double counting would occur where both the country selling the ITMO and the country buying it claim the same emissions reductions.↩︎
Non-market approaches refer to strategies and mechanisms that help countries achieve their NDCs without relying on market-based mechanisms like carbon trading or the sale of emissions credits↩︎
Warsaw International Mechanism for Loss and Damage associated with Climate Change Impacts↩︎